Historical Problems Free Essays

Woodrow Wilson has been described as â€Å"cold, aloof and often arrogant, but he was not all intellect. † By the time Wilson was elected governor of New Jersey he had never held a political office, and had never taken more than a theorist’s interest in politics. Wilson’s personal view on how the Presidential office should be run is to lead a country rather than to be lead. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Problems or any similar topic only for you Order Now He believed that a president should act like a prime minister and not be isolated from Congress. Wilson himself dreamed of a utopian society and amongst his intellectual supporters believed that this â€Å"most terrible and disastrous wars† could be countenanced only by perceiving of it as the harbinger of eternal peace. The utopian spirit of the war took concrete form in Wilson’s proposal of a postwar federation of nations, in itself not a utopian scheme but one which, from the first, was freighted with utopian aspirations. Though Wilson may have been an effective war president by delegating responsibilities to those qualified his aspirations for a perfect world and his sentiments of â€Å"peace without victory† obscured his reality. President Wilson presented his ideas for peace in his famous Fourteen Points address on January 8, 1918. Wilson’s chief goal was to have the treaty provide for the formation of a League of Nations. He hoped that the threat of economic or military punishment from League members, including Germany, would prevent future wars. Though Wilson held a prominent role in drafting the Treaty of Versailles, and would later receive the Nobel Peace Prize for, the other major Allies, however, had little interest in honoring either Wilson’s Fourteen Points or all his goals for the League of Nations. The allies had suffered far greater losses and wanted to punish Germany severely. Strong opposition to the treaty developed in the United States. Many Americans disagreed with Wilson’s generous approach to worn-torn Europe. Republicans objected to U. S. commitments to the League of Nations. The U. S. Senate refused to approve the treaty. Also blocking the passage of the League of Nations was the personal and political conflicts between Wilson and Henry Cabot Lodge. Lodge, who was then the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, insisted the specific and limiting changes be ade to protect U. S. interests. Wilson would not compromise. Unable and perhaps unwilling to reach an agreement with Wilson, Lodge used his power and position to ensure the defeat of the treaty—and prevent American participation in the League of Nations. As to whether or not the postwar would have been different if the United States had accepted and entered the League of Nations, it is unl ikely. America’s refusal to join the League, fitted in with her desire to have an isolationist policy throughout the world. Therefore, the League had a final ideal – to end war for good. However, if an aggressor nation was determined enough to ignore the League’s verbal warnings, all the League could do was enforce economic sanctions and hope these worked as it had no chance of enforcing its decisions using military might. Postwar 1920 brought many radical changes to Americans by the advancement in technology, discoveries, and inventions. Pop culture during the 1920’s was characterized by the flapper, automobiles, nightclubs, movies, and jazz. Life moved fast as a new sense of prosperity and freedom emerged at the end of World War 1. The 1920’s gave American’s radio, films, advertisements, and new literature to ponder. 1915 gave us a movie milestone in The Birth of a Nation, produced by D. W. Griffith. American’s were also given notable authors as F. Scott Fitzgerald, Booth Tarkington, Ernest Hemingway, and Sinclair Lewis. Authors of this period struggled to understand the changes occurring in society. While some writers praised the changes others expressed disappointment in the passing of old ways. But not before the printing press had American’s been brought together by shrinking the distances between people and homes. â€Å"Of all the new products put on the market during the decade, none met with more spectacular success than the radio. † The radio brought into American homes commercials, stories, news, music, sports, and advertisement. Improvements in radio broadcasting and radio manufacturing itself quickly became a big business. Along with the increasing availability of free-home entertainment it created a soaring demand for radios. The 1920’s were wrought with many issues of cultural conflict, prejudices, nativism, and moral policing. Widespread abuse of alcohol had been recognized as a serious social problem since the colonial days, in rural America as well as in cities, and â€Å"demon rum† had been long condemned from many Protestant pulpits during the 1920’s. Prohibition was the government’s solution to protect women, children, and families from the effects of abuse of alcohol, in other words, moral policing. Another example of moral policing today can be found in the controversial topic of legalizing marijuana. â€Å"Conversely, their omission in the present debate reflects the unfortunate reality that marijuana prohibition is perpetuated not by science, but rather by emotion and rhetoric. † The topic of nativism can be shown in three primary issues: immigration restriction, the KKK, and the cases of Sacco and Vanzetti. The old culture was generally anti-immigrant and tended to blame many of the problems of urban industrial American on immigrants. During the 1920’s the old culture, which was extremely nativist in attitude, was able to pass several immigration restriction laws which both lowered the number of immigrants to the U. S. and limited the numbers immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, which the old culture was particularly against. They did this through the quota system, set up in the Emergency Immigration Act of 1921 (and the revised with the 1924 National Origins Act) which established a certain number of immigrants from each country to be allowed into the U. S. per year. Each country’s quota was based on a percentage (3%) of people of that nation in the U. S. in the base year of (1910). The â€Å"rebirth† of the KKK was another sign of the nativism of the 1920’s as this â€Å"new† KKK was not only black, but also anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant. So have American’s learned their lesson from the 1920’s and have they changed their attitudes concerning nativism, moral policing, and are we still considered a prejudice country? In the year 2011, do American’s still consider them as being progressive and that they refuse to repeat history? Nativisim and prejudices can still be felt and seen throughout the United States. Our country is still debating nativism in the current situation with illegal immigrants. Newspapers, television shows, the radio, and internet are covered in stories of immigration policies. Our country is still swarmed with prejudices between races, religions, and lifestyles. It is our history to repeat and forget our past mistakes. As stated before, the 1920’s brought many radical changes to America with the advancement in technology, discoveries, and inventions. Pop culture in the 1920’s was characterized by the flapper, automobiles, nightclubs, movies, and music. Life moved fast as a new sense of prosperity and freedom emerged at the end of World War I. In many ways our current era is like that of the 1920’s. Our society is now connected to each other via the internet, and Facebook. On the spot news is even better now with television and radio and better yet the cell phone. Society is overrun with the most current, up-to-date news, even if no one cares what reading or hearing about. We are still a drug crazed and alcohol abusing society with fast cars, outrageous clothes and hairstyles. It just may be that we are going at a faster pace than those in the 1920’s. What can be seen differently is that maybe our morals have diminished in some aspects of society. Not that all society can be defined as a whole, as there are still those in our current society and those of the 1920’s that still and did value self respect, morals, God, and country. Works Cited 1920-1930. 1920’s Literature. 2005. http://www.1920-1930.com/literature. (accessed March 6, 2011. Content, new. Woodrow Wilson. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/peopleevents/p_lodge.html. (accessed March 6, 2011). Durant, John; Durant Alice. Pictorial History of American Presidents: An informal record of the President’s and their times from George Washington to Lyndon B. Johnson. New York: A.S. Barnes and Company Inc. 1965: 77-78 Learning History. League of Nations. 2011. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/leagueofnations.htm (accessed March 6, 2011). Leuchgenburg, William E. The Perils of Prosperity 1914-1932. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1993: 349 NORML. Government Private Commissions Supporting Marijuana Law Reform. 2010. http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3382 (accessed March 6, 2011). Raford. Nativism (as part of the 1920’s culture conflict. 1997. http://www.radford.edu/-shepburn/nativism.htm (accessed March 6, 2011). Time Life Editor s. The Jazz Era, Prohibition.Alexandria. Time Life Inc., 1998: Time Life Editors. Events That Shaped Our Century, Our American Century. Alexandria, 1998: How to cite Historical Problems, Papers

Repression1 Essay Example For Students

Repression1 Essay One morning after Dad finishes his workout, he pulls a fold-out bunk from the wall and lies down, still unclothed. I sit on the floor beside him. I watch his erection. He slaps his tummy with it. He laughs as if he is surprised. Touch it, he says, holding his penis up, offering it to me. I reached over, hold it with my fingers, and let it go, making a thwack I have seen his penis before when it is hard. Hed tried to put it into my bottom. He is going to do it again, isnt he?I dont want to be here, I say. Unlock the door. Please, Daddy.The bunker sits around me, heavy and grotesque. I disappear. (de Milly, http://www.walterdemilly.com/chapter.htm)Who would want to remember this sort of thing? Certainly not the poor child who is recalling it, so why would he? He didnt, for a long time, because of the pain this memory causes, so he did something that many people do with painful memories. He repressed it. Why do people repress memory, and how can it be recalled? This paper hopes to unlo ck a few of the secrets of this strange phenomenon. Firstly, repression, as defined by A Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, is the unconscious and involuntary process by which an unacceptable impulse or idea is rendered unconscious. According to Chip Phillips, repression is where unconsciously you bury painful or embarrassing memories (Phillips, Ch. 3). So what exactly causes someone to repress a memory? As Phillips stated, painful or embarrassing memories. Memories of childhood abuse and sexual abuse are very common (Herman Schatzow, 1-14), as are those of embarrassment (Phillips, lecture). The writer believes that these are valid statements, but believes there needs to be more added to the definition. The writer believes that repression is where a person subconsciously buries memories of shocking acts and events that caused severe and traumatizing pain and/or embarrassment. This definition is very similar to the others, however, the writer believes that almost permanent repression only happens with the most severe memories. Pain and trauma come in varying degrees, and so the writer believes that repression happens in varying degrees as well. For example, if a person trips and falls in a public place, more often than not they will feel embarrassed about it, but they will not repress the memory for a lifetime, more likely the perso n will repress it, only to recall it when someone reminds them of the incident. However, if a person were to walk into a surprise party in the nude with family and friends present, depending on the persons feelings about their body, they may be embarrassed to the point of repressing the memory for years (Phillips, lecture). That allows the individual to move on without having to deal with the pain of the memory. A lot of the information regarding the roots of repression is found in the works and findings of Freud. According to Frederick Crews, a well known writer on Freud, Freuds psychoanalytic theory showed that in his rashness, he preferred the arcane explanation to the obvious one. This allowed Freud to take the repressed memories of his patients, and instead of taking the obvious root of the memory, Freud used his trademark suppositions to say that their memories were something else. By prodding both before and after therapy, Freud devised a way to get his patients to recall non-existent sexual memories that are now labeled false memory syndrome. Crews further suggests that information taken from Freuds work points that the experience of subjects who may or may not be the survivors of sexual abuse depended on whether they actually recalled the previously repressed truth, or succumbed to the Freud-induced fantasy (www.vuw.ac.nz/psyc/fitzMemory/repn.html). The writer believes that this is mainly true, given the writers knowledge of Freudian theories. The writer believes that Freuds fixation on sex probably biased all of his work, and therefore a lot of his studies and patients recalled memories cannot be believed on the whole, but some of their reported memories may be valid. .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 , .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .postImageUrl , .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 , .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:hover , .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:visited , .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:active { border:0!important; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:active , .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341 .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc7de78490de652a27b910c507a828341:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Things They Carried by Tim O'Brien EssayHowever, the theory of repression is still believed to reside in the realm of psychoanalysis (Loftus, 1). Basically the repression theory goes like this: Something happens in life that is so shocking that the memory is pushed into some inaccessible corner of the consciousness and sleeps isolated from the rest of mental life (Loftus, 518). As the writers definition stated, repressed memories seem more like memories that were a total shock to the system of the person, physically, emotionally, etc. David Holmes suggests that there are three main elements to the theory of repression: Selective forgetting of materials that cause pain; Not under voluntary control; Material is not lost but stored in unconscious and can be restored to conscious if anxiety associated with the memory is removed (Holmes, 87). The writer accepts these elements, but disagrees with the third element. There can be memories so absolutely horrible and disturbing to the individual that they will never recall the memories, even under hypnosis or in therapy. Other than that, the writer agrees with Holmes suggestions. Now that the writer has explained the some of the theories of memory repression, she will focus on recollection, or recall, of said memories. All memory for the most part is present in the mind, while accessing it may not be easy. There are several ways to successfully recall repressed memories, but the most widely used and known is hypnosis (www.vuw.ac.nz/psyc/fitzMemory/repn.html). Hypnosis is where you are in a more aware state of consciousness, but you appear to be less aware (Phillips, Ch. 7). Once under hypnosis, the patient can be coaxed to go back to when they were. The therapist can use trance logic, a mixture of reality and hallucinations, to get the patient to describe their childhood in great detail. This usually reveals the patients traumatizing event, or it may not. Hypnosis is not just used for repression, though, as it is used to rid bad habits and mold behavior also. Not all people can be put under hypnosis however, so this method only works for those succeptable to the hypnotism (Phillips, Ch. 7). After reviewing all of the material presented here, the writer has come up with several ideas of repression herself. One is that not all repressed memories can be accessed, because if they could, we could actually remember prenatal memories, and thus far there is no known evidence to support prenatal memory that the writer could find. Another idea the writer has realized is that everyone represses memories all the time. Tings happen everyday that we do not remember, and while most arent repressed, merely interference with recollection (Phillips, Ch. 3), there are some that are repressed every day. If a person trips and falls, there is a good chance that they will not remember it the next week, until a friend or associate brings it up. It may be temporarily repressed due to the embarrassment, then recalled as soon as a reminder is brought up. The writer is curious to find evidence to support the recall of very early life, like prenatal memory for example, as it would shed more light o n the topic of repression and memory in general. Bibliography:anonymous. www.vuw.ac.nz/psyc/fitzMemory/repn.html. de Milly, W. http://www.walterdemilly.com/chapter.htm. Herman, J.L. Schatzow, E. (1987). Recovery and Verification of Memories of Childhood Sexual Trauma. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 4, 1-14. Holmes, D. (1990). The Evidence for Repression: An Examination of Sixty Years of Research. (found in) J. Springer (Ed.). Repression and Dissociation: Implications for Personality, Theory, Psychopathology, and Health (pp. 85-102). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Loftus, E.F. (1993). The Reality of Repressed Memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518-537. Phillips, C. (2000). Lecture notes, Ch. 3, Ch. 7, general lecture.

Assignment 1 Essays (696 words) - Economics, Demand, Economy

Assignment 1 2- Price Qd Qs 2 88 34 4 76 40 6 64 46 8 52 52 10 40 58 12 28 64 20320016250500 100 3966273163403862002154100 80DS 60 40 20 28936951085850 2 4 6 8 10 12 5-law of demand: the claim that the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good raises ,other factors remain same. -Assumptions: 1-income level should remain constant. 2-tastes of the buyers should not alter. 3-prices of other goods should remain constant. 4-no new substitutes for the commodity. 5-price rise in future should not be expected. 6-advertising expenditure should remain the same.-The demand curve shows how price effect quantity demanded other thing being equal. Increase in of buyers, increases quantity demanded at each price, shifts D curve to the right. Increase in income causes shifts D curves for inferior goods to the left. Price of related goods. Tastes. Expectations. 7-price control: intervention by a government to set the price in a market or limit its movement, thus attempting to override the market mechanism. 1-with a binding price floor, excess supply will exist,firms will have unsold output they must sore. This is a surplus. 2-with a binding price ceiling, excess demand will exist. In absence of equilibrium, the number of goods exchanged will be whichever is fewer,Qd or Qs at that price. In the short run,it leads to rise of black market of the commodity. Thus it leads firms not to innovate their products in the long run, because firms don't have any incentive of more profits due to price controls in the market. 8-price elasticity. Income elasticity. Cross price elasticity. 11- TC = 100 + 5Q + 2.5Q2 (Q= 10 Units) a. TC = 400 b. TFC = 100 c. TVC=300 d. MC = 10 e. ATC =40 12- Major conditions for esteem isolation Condition 1: There must be some disfigurement of the market. On the off chance that there were flawless rivalry, regard disengagement would be remarkable since the individual maker could have no impact on cost. At any rate some level of constraining arrangement of activity power is thusly essential with the target that makers have some capacity to make as opposed to take the market cost. Condition 2: The isolating supplier must have the ability to part the market into specific ranges and keep them separated, with the true objective that it is difficult to trade the merchant's thing beginning with one section then onto the following i.e. there must be no "spillage" between business divisions as in stock can be obtained in the more affordable market and re-sold in the dearer. Condition 3: Incurred significant damage adaptability of eagerness for each market must be unmistakable; if this were the situation , the confining provider would manufacture brought in the market with an inelastic request bend, and reduce cost where request is versatile to develop mean pay and favorable circumstances. On the off chance that the adaptability of excitement for each market was the same at every last regard, an ordinary cost would be charged in both markets as this cost would address the favorable position expanding cost in each market where MC = MR. You may wish to propose back at this phase to where we examined the relationship between regard flexibility of interest and aggregate wage Influence on customer welfare. Consumer surplus is decreased all things considered - addressing lost welfare. For most of buyers, the esteem charged is well over the minor cost of supply. However a couple of customers who can now buy the thing at a lower cost may benefit. Cut down wage buyers may be "esteemed into the market" if the supplier is excited and prepared to charge them less. Greater access to these organizations may yield external preferences (positive externalities) improving social welfare and esteem. Drugs associations may legitimize offering things at swelled expenses in higher-wage countries since they can then contribute comparable medicines to patients poorer countriesProducer surplus and the use of advantagePrice detachment benefits associations through higher salaries and advantages. A isolating forcing plan of action is removing client surplus and changing it into supernormal advantage/creator overabundance. Question (7): https://www.coursehero.com/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIuYzCo43v0wIV753tCh29ZgGzEAAYASAAEgJFOvD_BwE

Free Essays on Handicapped

The Home for Handicapped Children and Young People in Veternik is the social welfare institution. The Assembly of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina established it on December 20th, 1971 and it started working in February 1972 with 210 protà ©gà ©s. The growth and development of the Home has been summarised in several pictures by the philosopher, Prof. Aleksandar Becin: Having in mind the position I occupied for more than three decades in the system of social welfare in the Province (Vojvodina) and, among other things, the official contacts I had had with the Specialised Institute in Veternik from its establishment all until recently, there is no doubt that I could validly testify about the whole development of this institution. For the period until 1992, with all the recognition (construction of buildings, establishment of services, involvement of a number of protà ©gà ©s in the work of several workshops, occasional organisation of successful cultural and sports manifestations and meetings with users of similar institutions etc.) it would be a sad picture depicting the conditions of everyday life of children. Now, within the last 6-7 years a marvellous paradox has been happening: during the severest social crisis the unseen rise is recorded, as well as transformation and achievements in all conditions and aspects of work of the Institute and in the life of children in general. The Institute has grown into one of the most representative institutions of this kind in the country, according to the level of material and expert equipment, organisation and rich contents and the atmosphere in work and life. It is the matter of buildings and space in general, housing, clothing, food, hygiene and health protection, special nursing and rehabilitation, occupational and cultural-entertainment and recreational activities etc. They installed their own heating system of rooms that are now clean and neat. In the previously empty yard that wa... Free Essays on Handicapped Free Essays on Handicapped The Home for Handicapped Children and Young People in Veternik is the social welfare institution. The Assembly of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina established it on December 20th, 1971 and it started working in February 1972 with 210 protà ©gà ©s. The growth and development of the Home has been summarised in several pictures by the philosopher, Prof. Aleksandar Becin: Having in mind the position I occupied for more than three decades in the system of social welfare in the Province (Vojvodina) and, among other things, the official contacts I had had with the Specialised Institute in Veternik from its establishment all until recently, there is no doubt that I could validly testify about the whole development of this institution. For the period until 1992, with all the recognition (construction of buildings, establishment of services, involvement of a number of protà ©gà ©s in the work of several workshops, occasional organisation of successful cultural and sports manifestations and meetings with users of similar institutions etc.) it would be a sad picture depicting the conditions of everyday life of children. Now, within the last 6-7 years a marvellous paradox has been happening: during the severest social crisis the unseen rise is recorded, as well as transformation and achievements in all conditions and aspects of work of the Institute and in the life of children in general. The Institute has grown into one of the most representative institutions of this kind in the country, according to the level of material and expert equipment, organisation and rich contents and the atmosphere in work and life. It is the matter of buildings and space in general, housing, clothing, food, hygiene and health protection, special nursing and rehabilitation, occupational and cultural-entertainment and recreational activities etc. They installed their own heating system of rooms that are now clean and neat. In the previously empty yard that wa...

Warner Bros Values in the Production Setting Term Paper

Warner Bros Values in the Production Setting - Term Paper Example Warner Bros had been engaged in production and focused on a mentioned theme that upheld the production motive. The trend had to be set in Hollywood to predict the efforts applied by variable production companies. Crime and survival measures had been the strategies applied in Warner Bros and the developed gangster film proved the specialized theme applied. The production focused on self-styled, which are referred to as blue-collar champions who had the message to pass during the period marred with depression in society. The upright means to acquire wealth had failed and left the solution to be in crime, which had been the norm during the period (Jowett, 1988). The movie had been the reflection of the actual events depicted within the society that had made the headlines in the newspapers. Tom had grown to find crime as the best solution when he joined the gangsters at a young age. The thieves had taught him the value presented in the easier articulation of wealth that had been used to progress in the unjust society. He grows up to pick the vice as the chief leader in the gang to acquire his riches through unlawful methods that had been the setback to progress. The movie had been set in a growing city where criminal activities thrived in the darkness as the sole platform for presenting criminal behavior (Leff & Jerrold, 1988). Hollywood had delivered the need to present specialization in movie production to regulate the costs used in completing the production of a movie. Warner Bros values in the production setting revealed the struggle of the majority in articulating survival measures within society. The movie industry has been advanced to predict the social events that reflect the behavior of the individuals within the society. The norm presented has led to the estab lishment of guidelines to be met to complete the existence on a stable platform. Movie production has reflected the behavior of humanity and set the lifestyle that has been recorded to promise the majority of the benefits towards sustenance of the available entities.

Foucault Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Foucault - Essay Example This evolution of his theory can be traced from 1960's to 1980's and reveal a pattern of study of how power influences decision-making. In 1960's he uses terms like 'contestation' and 'transgression' and uses them interchangeably. In 1970's Foucault moved to 'struggle' and 'resistance' which are again synonymous. And finally in 1980's he used the term 'agonism'. All these terms used through a period of time defining his core focus on the play of resistance, and Foucault's conceptualization of power rather than strict references made to limits. (AMOUDI) Foucault's power-resistance relation is a dynamic analysis of the modern day world. The groundwork of the role of power being laid in the previous theories which evolved between 1960's and 1970's, the economics of power has been more rigorously presented in these theories. Michel Foucault goes further to give a definition of power relations in an essay published in 1982: 'The exercise of power is not simply a relationship between partners, individual or collective; it is a way in which certain actions modify others' Although the exercise of power may need violence or consent, these are not inherent to a power relation. Moreover, one of the consequences of this limit to power is that resistance is the sine qua non condition for power. Indeed, a power relation, is not an action which determines another action, but an action which influences an other action by determining a field of possibility for it. In this field of possibility, ways of resisting are by definition present. The second limit set to power relations, therefore, is fight. According to Foucault, the goal of a fight is either to force the opponent to abandon the game (hence a victory which dissolves the power relation) or to set up a new relation of power. In other words, there is circularity between power relations open to fight and a fight aiming at power relations. Therefore there is a constant instability in a power relationship which excludes by definition any form of determinism. By stressing the ontological link between power and resistance, Foucault invites us to understand his reading of the mechanisms of power h e highlights. Power is to be understood then as a form of power, which is perpetually confronted with potential (and some time actual) resistance. (AMOUDI) In his book Order of Things and Foucault Reader, he addresses the power of observation and the impact of it on the observed. He emphasizes that observing people and judging them requires a degree of conformity, which is less obvious and subsequently, according to Foucault more powerful because of its restrained state. This same impact is seen in Panopticism where Foucault shows a transition in prison systems from physical manipulation to implicit manipulation. This new form of control is implemented through a physical construction that creates the illusion of continual surveillance. This surveillance creates the impetus for self-control. It is the power of being observed which places the role of control on the subjects. People control themselves out of a desire not to be looked down upon - to control their own public reputations. Panopticism works in a similar way - by continual observation or the illusion of continual observation, people are expected to continually discipline thems elves so as to avoid being disciplined by an external source (Foucault & Rabinow) The power which is

Use of neologisms in legal translation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Use of neologisms in legal translation - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the difficulties in legal translation from one original term to another in consideration of â€Å"cultural asymmetry† between different legal systems of which one country or group of nations’ legal concepts as well as courtroom procedures have been formed by their own history and experience. Likewise, these established legal concepts are not always, if at all, shared by other countries or nations and states of which target language for translation may be necessary. Once specific observation was that of Stern where there are acknowledgment and accommodation of other cultures in the International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia (ICTY) but these â€Å"other cultures† were not able to experience equal status with the Anglo-Saxon legal and communicative culture dominating the Tribunal. While it is generally understood that legal language is accepted by the precision of its legal terms predominantly generic and c onnotative so that they are not decoded by a simple process of one-to-one relationship in linguistics, Newmark and Baker also pointed out that the relative accuracy of legal or lexical equivalent was problematic in the translation and interpretation process. Local courts may employ the essential capabilities of legal professionals and the judiciary, but there are growing occurrences and instances that foreign as well as internationally accepted laws are a necessity in order to provide legal solutions to local cases, and vice versa. The quality of interpretation, then, as well as the exigency of justice becomes dependent on the interpreter, or how legal translation is undergone, presented and used. This paper will try to explore the use of neologism in legal translation with close reference to Rene de Groot's article "Title" and (year, PLEASE SUPPLY, ALSO UNDER REFERENCE) as well as to other available resources. Discussion: Whereas Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure argued that "Language is a system of interdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simultaneous presence of the others ... Content is really fixed only by the concurrence of everything that exists outside it. Being part of a system, it is endowed not only with a signification but also and especially with a value," (qtd. Noth, 1990, p 61), we are then presented with technical connection of words between and amongst themselves which altogether changes when used with other words. This alone as well as cultural differences provide a difficulty in the manner of translating legal terms which this paper explores. Already, in a study conducted by Stern (2004), it was acknowledged that the lack of exact legal equivalents between languages, in this context English and French or Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian (BCS), was an obstacle and a very difficult aspect of translation. Given examples "for everyday terms and concepts, such as allegations, cross-examination, pre-trial, to plead guilty/not guilty, beyond any reasonable doubt or balance of probability (and) cognates such as appeal, charges, objection," (Stern, 2004) proved to have different significance in the target language/s and presented discrepancies in the translation of official legal documents, as well as judgments. Weston (1983 p 207), himself pointed out that, "It is no business of the translator's to create a new word or expression if the SL [source language] expression can be adequately and conveniently translated by using one of the foregoing methods" of which methods were enumerated as: 1. equivalent notions 2. literal translations 3. leaving the term un-translated. De Groot, nevertheless, presented three solutions as: 1. Do not translate and use the target language the original or transcribed term from the source language. If necessary one explains the notion between brackets or in a foot-note by using a 'literal translation' or by using a remark as 'comparable with